The main obstacle of upgrade of computers

Evgenie Rudometov,

Victor Rudometov

authors@rudometov.com

According to development of computer processing techniques and the extension of a circle of solved tasks complexity system and applications increases. After all spares on increase in productivity of the existing computer at the expense of all-round optimisation of operation of its hardware-software resources completely are settled, it is necessary to pass to more radical measures, for example, upgrades of existing system. However on path of solution of the given problem insuperable results of evolution of the computer processing techniques limiting periods of carrying out of given operation rise an obstacle.

Productivity of computers and their functional vozmozhyonosti substantially depend on parametres of the units which are a part of systems. Therefore after a choice of patterns computers are necessary for customising optimally, achieving maximum productivity of units and the most complete implementation of their potential possibilities, considering not only hardware, but also program components of systems.

Unfortunately, on it problems of the experts who are responsible for maintenance of computers and problem solving, do not come to an end.

Problem of the limited resources

It is necessary to mark, what even carefully selected, optimally customised, and also regularly and accurately serviced hardware-software resources of computers cannot correspond long time to permanently increasing requirements. It is linked by that complexity of tasks, and also system and applications permanently increases. Their requirements to hardware resources of computers grow also.

As a result sooner or later users of corporate and personal computers face a problem their insufficient productivity for solution of tasks in view. After all spares on increase in productivity at the expense of appropriate customisation and all-round optimisation of operation of equipment rooms and software of computers are completely settled, it is necessary to search for paths of solution of the given problem.

The part of users invents new methods and the algorithms, allowing to solve tasks in the conditions of the limited resources. First of all, it concerns insufficient productivity of system of hardware.

Often users of these groups refuse modern operating systems with their convenient, but prodigal interfaces, preferring more economic, but also more primitive program systems of the previous generations. As result of such approach, on the computer with the limited resources simple, often out-of-date programs are maintained. However, it is necessary to recognise, that is frequent these programs are effective enough in solution of the limited circle of tasks of rather small complexity. As an example it is possible to result the popular specialised handlers of financial information written still under DOS and oriented to requirements of corporations of the modest sizes and insignificant financial resources.

Fig. 1. Traditional solution of a problem of limited resources RS

But there is also other circle of users. Explaining all an expedition of scientific and technical progress, such users quite often agree to go changeover of the existing equipment. In many cases, troubleshooting insufficient productivity, they are ready to gain completely new computers, despite them quite often rather high prices.

Other users, trying to save, prefer to fulfil upgrade operations (upgrade) already existing systems. Thus they realise necessity of appropriate financial expenses and buy necessary arrangements and-or the newest computer accessories, ruthlessly getting rid from the existing. Further or by means of experts of indirect corporations, or own efforts when experience and qualification of the employees allow, they refresh system step-by-step, carrying out multiple operations of upgrade. In the course of the given operations these users substitute the out-of-date, critical accessories on modern, characterised by the raised productivity and possessing wider functionality. Usually such accessories are the processor, memory, the videoadapter, a hard disk.

It is necessary to remind, that often enough problem of insufficient productivity concerns still rather not old and perfectly working computers, probably, bought only a year-two ago, but the applied with promptly growing requirements applied and system software.

Unfortunately, both variants — acquisition of new computers and upgrade of existing systems are linked to the considerable financial expenses which sizes be frequent can rather essential.

Recognising all advantages of new systems, it is necessary to mark, that upgrade of systems in most cases manages essentially more cheaply, especially in case of mass purchases and changeover of accessories.

However on path of upgrade of the computer often there are the insuperable problems linked to development of processing techniques, and also architecture improvement as accessories, and all system of hardware. It is linked by that the rapid progress in perfection of processing techniques and computer accessories very often does not provide eligibility and compatibility of standards, interfaces and designer solutions. It quite often interferes with upgrade of computers.

Evolution of processing techniques and accessories

In the conditions of constant development of computer processing techniques and development of more and more perfect soft hardware period of expedient maintenance of sites and computer technology units is permanently reduced. At appearance of modern, better and efficient components begins economically unprofitable to maintain out-of-date prototypes. And it despite perfection of the "know-how", growth of dependability and period of their accident-free maintenance.

Evolution of a procedure of the corporation of Intel Table 1

The process name	P854	P856	P858	Px60	P1262	P1264	P1266	P1268
Implantation, year	1995	1997	1999	2001	2003	2005	2007	2009
Lithograph, nanometer	350	250	180	130	90	65	45	32
Slice Si, mm	200	200	200	200/300	300	300	300	300
Interconnectings	Al	Al	Al	Cu	Cu	Cu	Cu	Cu
Length of a lock, nanometer	350	200	130	70	50	30	20	15
Gate dielectric	SiO2	SiO2	SiO2	SiO2	SiO2	SiO2	High-k	High-k
The channel	Si	Si	Si	Si	Strained Si	Strained Si	Strained Si	Strained Si

Fig. 2. The forecast of evolution of solid-state technology of the corporation of Intel

Now for difficult accessories which processors concern, videoadapters and hard disks, operation period in computers makes usually no more than 5 years. This estimation on the average. However many corporate and private users even before the expiration of the given period try to substitute these, as a rule, serviceable and well working units, on more efficient samples. For example, they carry out changeover as it and is recommended by numerous computer experts, in particular, experts of the corporation of Intel, every 2‑3 year. At the same time it is necessary to mark, that the high dependability of computer units confirmed with numerous trials of independent experts, allows to maintain them more than 10 years.

All told, first of all, concerns such difficult units, as central processor units of computers.

Processors

These units as theoretical estimations and practice of maintenance of computers show, are capable to work correctly in regular modes during durable pererioda, reaching, at least, several decades. As proof of it it is possible to result numerous examples of working capacity of computers with processors i8086 and i8088, being till now in a number of the state organisations. Nevertheless, despite it, according to development of computer processing techniques and evolution of a semiconducting procedure the considerable changes, allowing to speak about the new architecture, each 3‑4 years are brought in structure of kernels of the given group of released units. Standards of packing of semiconducting crystals, and also processor plugs through which hooking up of these units to the motherboard is carried out, vary much more often. As to appearance of new, more and more perfect and efficient models of the processors released within the limits of one architecture they appear, as a rule, everyone some months. Thus it is necessary to mark, that new models of processors to which architecture of a kernel have made the considerable changes improving them functionality, in some cases appear are already incompatible with the platforms calculated for their predecessors. Unfortunately, it occurs even at type saving korpusirovki and the processor plug, being in the important parametres not only the given units, but also platforms.

Nevertheless, as the well-known example illustrating change of a platform without change of type of the processor plug, it is possible to result once very popular processors of Intel of Pentium MMX. These processors have been calculated, as well as earlier released models of Intel of Pentium, on widespread Socket 7 plug there is . However even at saving of type of the processor plug the released Intels of Pentium MMX demanded unlike the predecessors the motherboards, capable to provide two levels of a supply voltage of a processor kernel. It means, that new processors, generally speaking, the architectures concerning one type, known as P5, have demanded platform change.

By the way, the given processors actively use in industrial controllers, and Intel corporation releases till now similar units and the products calculated for extremal conditions of service.

Coming back to the mentioned problems of compatibility, it is necessary to mark, that the accelerated change of platforms occurred and in the subsequent generations of processors. Really, in mass models Socket 7 plug  and its modification Super  7 (Super Socket  7) has replaced Slot  1, incompatible with the predecessor and demanded appropriate units of support. It has besides demanded change of a platform and, as consequence, new financial expenditures from the corporate and private users, wishing to take advantage of advantages and functionality new, perspective, of course, to measures of that time, the architecture of processors.

As one more example illustrating necessity of the next change of a platform, it is possible to result, for example, appearance of processors of Intel of Pentium III and Intel Celeron, 130 nanometers fulfilled on processing technique on the basis of kernel Tualatin. These products concern, as well as them of 180 nanometers predecessors with kernel Coppermine, to one type of P6 architecture. However new processors, despite saving of type of the plug in which quality standard Socket 370 used affirmed then in branch , have demanded the next change of power supplies. It has caused of usage as a part of motherboards of the new converter of power — VRM unit (Voltage Regulator Module) on the motherboard, a working out supply voltage of a kernel. This unit satisfies version 8.5 specifications — VRM 8.5 and has been urged to substitute VRM  8.4, earlier applied to products with kernel Coppermine and incapable to support products with kernel Tualatin.

Fig. 3. Change of requirements on power supplies of a kernel of processors of the corporation of Intel at transition from processing technique 0,18 microns to 0,13 microns

It is necessary to mark, that changes have concerned not only power supplies, but levels of signals on the processor bus. Thus, it was required not only new VRM which standard, by the way, provides support and prior variants of processors of 180 nanometers, but also and an appropriate new chip set. And it besides, as well as in the previous examples, meant change of the motherboard for interested persons to use power of processors with kernel Tualatin, well and as consequence, new financial expenditures, for interested persons to carry out upgrade of the systems of individual and corporate usage.

Certainly, on the products which have personified ideas P6, scientific and technical progress has not stopped, and alternation of generations of computer platforms has not stopped.

Parsing development of the architecture and konstruktivov processors of generation of Intel of Pentium 4, it is necessary to mark, that situations similar to their predecessors occurred and to these hi-tech products. Not only that implantation of the new architecture was accompanied by respective alterations of hardware-software resources of systems, evolution of processors initialized depositing adequate korrektivov in platforms of computers. Here have found the place and become to this time already traditional changes in power supplies of processors, at what not only at change of the architecture of a kernel, but also at transition from processing technique of 180 nanometers to more perfect processing technique of 130 nanometers. In appropriate way has varied and konstruktiv released models. By the way, the standard of Socket 423 plug entered for the first models of processors of NetBurst architecture, has held on, as a matter of fact, less than year. To it on change has come incompatible with it Socket 478 which introduction has demanded, as always, development and release of appropriate motherboards. It is necessary to add, that high-powered and suitably power-intensive processors have demanded also the new power supply unit supplied with the additional plug of power supply with an answer part on the motherboard. That is besides once again took place change of all platform RS.

Estimating features of development kompjuternoyh processing techniques, it is possible to assert with confidence, that the given process of modification of designer solutions will be continued. Ahead of users the new problems linked to appearance and wide implantation of processors, created on the basis of the new kernel of NetBurst architecture which have come in the stead Northwood expect. This kernel has received name Prescott.

Architectural changes of a kernel and growth of clock rates have led to substantial growth teploobrazovanija and a kernel current flow. As a result of all modifications, despite saving of type of the processor plug, at least, for the first models, the new processor with kernel Prescott demands further increase in power integrated into motherboard VRM structure. Moreover, attempts of usage of new models of the processor as a part of unadapted for this purpose the motherboards intended for processors with kernel Northwood, can call corrupting VRM of the given cards. For correct operations of the new processor the motherboard should support specifications VRM 10.0 and FMB 1.5 and above. But, support at level BIOS and a chip set besides, is required.

For support of processors with kernel Prescott with high clock rate release of appropriate chip sets is provided. Predictably, for desktop computers and workstations of initial level it there will be four variants of chip set Granstdale, and also a set of logic Alderwood which will replace a present most efficient and expensive chip set of Intel i875P (Canterwood).

Possibly, there is no necessity to prove, that, that as a result of implementation of new requirements, grjadet the next change of platforms though the certain share of the cards oriented to dispersal, can be used with low models of processors. The most interesting, as this even the updated platform will exist not for long as as it is already declared, through rather short time there will be a next change processor konstruktiva and the plug. The new plug has already received name Socket T. Well and, of course, potential users who will wish to take advantage of advantages of new processors, will be forced to replace once again the motherboards, and in many cases — and new power supply units as electrical power of existing arrangements in many cases will be insufficiently. Besides, predictably, grjadet change konstruktivov motherboards, system units, power supply units and, of course, appropriate plugs of power supplies.

So planned by some corporate and private users upgrade of computer systems at the expense of changeover of existing central processor units for a part from them becomes rather problematic solution, and after a while — and impossible by because of problems of compatibility with existing accessories.

It is necessary to mark, that similar problems can be observed and in the systems supporting processors AMD.

Evolution of the architecture of processors of Intel for computers Desktop Table 2

Processors	Plugs	Year of release
Intel 8086	-	1978
Intel 286	-	1982
Intel 386	-	1985
Intel 486DX	Socket 1 / Socket 2 / Socket 3 / Socket 6	1989
Pentium Intel / Pentium MMX	Socket 4 / Socket 5 / Socket 7	1993
Intel OF PENTIUM II/Pentium III	Slot 1 / Socket 370	1997
Intel OF PENTIUM 4 (Willamette, Northwood, Prescott, Tejas, …)	Socket 473 / Socket 478 / Socket T (Socket 775)	2000

Videoadapters

According to market requirements prompt development of computer processing techniques has mentioned also other accessories, for example, such important as videoadapters. By the way, now the video chips named recently as geometry processors and making a basis of modern videoadapters, quite often compete on complexity of the architecture to central processor units.

In short period hardware video resources of personal computers have transited path of consistently replaced interfaces ISA, VLB, PCI, AGP. Thus each of the enumerated interfaces has on neskolku variants of the specifications standardising release of a wide spectrum of specialised maps of video resources. So, for example, AGP videoadapters dominating now have been presented by several generations of video resources — AGP 1X, AGP 2X, AGP 4X, AGP 8X which differ both productivity, and complexity of architectures. Thus they differ not only productivity, but also requirements of the electrical, logical and constructive interfaces interfering mutual compatibility of videoadapters.

And next in turn the new perspective interface which has received name PCI Express (in development was known as 3GIO) and demanding new design of videoadapters and motherboards. Predictably, mass release of motherboards under standard PCI Express will occur already in first half of 2004 though the first copies of similar arrangements have been presented in 2003 at autumn forum IDF to San Jose (the USA, California).

Estimating speed of evolution of videoadapters, it is possible to mark, that as a result of perfection of interfaces each 2-3 years simultaneously with the advent of the next bar of video resources supporting more perfect standard, there is also a change of a platform of the computer. It is linked by that new videoadatery cannot be maintained together with earlier released motherboards, and for implementation of possibilities of more perfect products the surrounding new to them is required.

Evolution of buses of video of computers Desktop Table 3

Video buses	Capacity, Mb per second	Year of implantation
ISA	8	1984
VLB	100‑133	1992
PCI	133	1993
AGP	266	1997
AGP 2X	533	1998
AGP 4X	1066	1999
AGP 8X	2100	2002
PCI Express	2100 +	2004

Memory

Not less dramaticheski for the users planning periodically to raise productivity and functionality of the computers at the expense of operations of upgrade, the situation and with dynamic storage is added. Here too as well as in case of processors and videoadapters, there is a prompt change of types, interfaces and konstruktivov. Really, for rather short period which has transited after appearance of the first personal computers, appeared and disappeared, replacing each other, the different types of dynamic storage incompatible among themselves.

Evolution of types of dynamic storage for computers Desktop Table 4

Dynamic storage types	Year of implantation
FPM DRAM	1992
EDO DRAM	1994
SDRAM (SDR SDRAM)	1997
RDRAM	1999
DDR SDRAM	2001
DDR II SDRAM	2004

Each type of dynamic storage inserted in the course of evolution had some variants differing among themselves frequency and time parametres.

Memory SDRAM — SDR SDRAM became one of the most popular types of memory of the last years . This memory which is hooked up to system by means of a 64-bit wire, is presented by units of specifications PC66, PC100, PC133. Here it is necessary to remind, that digits in the given specifications designate maximum clock rates of their operation, that is, accordingly, 66, 100, 133 MHz.

For short alternative of memory SDR SDRAM was RDRAM (Rambus DRAM). This memory is hooked up to system by means of a 16-bit wire and carries out data transfer on the doubled clock rate. It is presented by units of specifications PC600, PC700, PC800, PC1066, PC1200 which digits designate transmission frequencies of data.

However memory RDRAM has not got wide popularity. This role has got to memory DDR SDRAM representing development of processing technique SDR SDRAM. Memory DDR SDRAM possessing in comparison with RDRAM the smaller price, is presented by the units calculated for clock rates 100, 133, 166, 200 MHz, accordingly — DDR200, DDR266, DDR333, DDR400. Memory DDR SDRAM provides the doubled transfer rate (the doubled band) in comparison with SDR SDRAM even at equal values of clock rates. By the way, recently have appeared not provided by standards and more high-frequency variants. Some of them are calculated for transmission frequencies of 500 MHz given already more .

It is necessary to add, that DDR SDRAM units are calculated for power power supply 2,5 In, whereas SDR SDRAM — 3,3 In, and EDO DRAM — 3,3 In or 5 In, FPM DRAM  — 5 Century

The compatibility problem becomes complicated the different constructive solutions of memory modules released during the different periods of development of the architecture of processors. As variants extended konstruktivov memory modules it is possible to result, for example, SIPP, SIMM, DIMM, RIMM. Each of specified konstruktivov is presented by the several variants having in some cases not only the different physical sizes, but even different number of contact electrodes, well and, of course, the different interfaces corresponding to different types of memory.

Fig. 4. The forecast of evolution of types of memory

Possibly, there is no necessity to prove, that the resulted distinctions carry on to inconsistence of memory modules that generates numerous problems for users. And ahead, already in 2004, transition on vledujushchuju modification of memory DDR SDRAM — DDR II is expected  . This new standard provides also new konstruktiv memory modules, more a low level of power supplies and the new interface of data transfer that does not allow potential users to calculate for its usage in existing systems. And though DDR II are just gathered to insert in desktop computers, workstations and servers, transition to following standard DDR III is already planned, that, predictably, will occur in some years.

Considering features of types of the dynamic storage used in desktop computers, it is necessary to remind, that the similar path of evolution can be observed and in case of a video memory used as a part of videoadapters. There also, as well as with motherboards, chips of memory FPM, EDO, SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM and some more out-of-date specialised types of a video memory were applied. By the way, recently even more often began to announce models of videoadapters in which architecture use the chip of memory of type DDR II which are more high-frequency in comparison with traditional DDR.

Hard disks

Do not concede in rates of development to the considered components of computer systems and such important accessories, as hard disks (HDD). Their information capacity the last some years doubles, practically, each 9‑12 months, and there is an underplate to assume, that the given rates of increase in the given parametre will be saved, at least, the next five-seven years. By the way, the fast increase in size practically does not lead to dependability lowering. Dependability declared by manufacturers quite often exceeds 500 000 value of hours of a time between failures. Moreover, for some models the given metric, under statements of corporations-manufacturers, makes even  1 200 000 hours.

For hard disks unlike processors, videoadapters and dynamic storage during the durable period compatibility of the new more capacious and high-speed models which are hooked up by means of become traditional parallel interface ATA, with earlier released computer systems is saved. For example, products with ATA100 (100 Mb per second) can be hooked up to controllers ATA66 (66 Mb per second) and even to ATA33 (33 Mb per second). However completely to realise high-speed potential of modern hard disks in similar cases it will not be possible. And, of course, compatibility of arrangements ATA with controllers of perspective serial interfaces Serial ATA150 (150 Mb per second) and Serial ATA300 (300 Mb per second) as, however, and arrangements Serial ATA150 with controllers of parallel interfaces ATA100/66/33, it is not provided, though, it is necessary to recognise, some computer corporations release various adapters and adapters. However this path not always optimal as additional processes of conversion call a fallback of data, and, therefore, and productivity of a disk subsystem.

Evolution ATA of the interface used in computers Desktop Table 5

Buses	Capacity, Mb per second	Year of implantation
ATA16	16,7	1996
ATA33	33,3	1997
ATA66	66,7	1999
ATA100	100	2000
ATA133	133	2001
Serial ATA150	150	2002
Serial ATA300	300	2004
Serial ATA600	600	2007

Fig. 5. The forecast of evolution ATA of the interface

Disk drives on removable disks

Except the considered units of the architecture of computers, exist as well problems with other accessories, whose evolution occurs sometimes not less fast rates, than the units of systems considered above.

As an example of such accessories it is possible to result disk drives with replaceable carriers. Numerous variants of magnetic and optical carriers, and also drives corresponding to them concern them. It is necessary to mark, that are quite often incompatible not only their standards, but also interfaces. The considerable share of users computers is enough to result as an example floppy disks of a format of 5,25 inches which were popular still any ten years ago, and cannot even already recollect them. The similar role expects also their successors — drives of a format of 3,5 inches as more capacious transportable arrangements apply for this role, for example, on the basis of the flash-memory, hooked up by means of widespread high-speed interfaces USB 1.1 and USB  2.0. By the way, last promptly supersedes the predecessor though became mandatory attribute of motherboards, perhaps only hardly there is more than year.

And optical carriers both drives corresponding to them and standards? Their abundance complicates not only a choice of arrangements, but also interferes with information interchange as many of them are incompatible not only with carriers, but also among themselves. Moreover, even further evolution of optical methods does not promote solution of existing problems, as on horizon besides an abundance of incompatible standards, carriers and arrangements.

It is necessary to mark, that for optical disk drives, except incompatible standards of writing/playback, exists also a problem of used laser diodes. The matter is that the wavelength of rayed light in a case vysokoemkih disks should be essentially more shortly in comparison with carriers of prior generations. By the way, and optical carriers should be corresponding. By the way, cases when the optical disks created at the beginning of formation of this type of arrangements, do not wish to work steadily in modern high-speed drives are frequent.

Peripherals

Estimating and considering features of evolution of computer accessories, it is impossible to ignore and an extensive class of peripheral devices without which any personal computer does not manage. Evolution of the given arrangements generates the specific problems both internal, and external, linked to features hardware and the software.

For an illustration it is enough to recollect such arrangements as printers. For example, dot-matrix printers were more recently very popular arrangements. However now them it is difficult enough, and in many cases and it is not possible, to find in sale. Same concerns also appropriate consumables which the appropriate cartridges colouring tapes and a carbon concern first of all. Business similarly is and with spare details to these out-of-date arrangements, for example, with print heads, rolls, mechanical and electronic units. As to other types of printers — ink-jet and laser the problem of compatibility of their cartridges, complicated by diversity of types of a recommended paper, is a well-known problem not only among experts, but also among nonprofessional users.

In addition to it many peripheral devices have been calculated for already become outdated consecutive and parallel interfaces COM and LPT, promptly superseded of the architecture of motherboards consecutive FireWare (IEEE1394) and USB (USB 1). Thus, the newest arrangements oriented to perspective interfaces, are quite often incompatible with existing computers, and out-of-date peripherals — with the newest systems.

The conclusion

The resulted examples and numerical estimations though, of course, and incomplete, prove, that prompt progress in solid-state technologies and the architecture of computer accessories does not allow to support during long time standards earlier developed and realised in existing systems, interfaces and konstruktivy. It means, that upgrade of computer systems is expedient and possible, as a rule, only within the limits of the period defined by time of revolutionary change of architectures, standards and types of accessories. From here follows, that upgrade of corporate and private systems is necessary for leading in time.

Time of change of architectures, standards and types of accessories Table 6

Accessories	The period, years
Processors	3‑4
Videoadapters	2‑3
Dynamic storage	2‑3

So, after a while after acquisition of the computer evolution of computer processing techniques and architectures complicates, and in many cases does impossible, upgrade of its equipment rooms and software in which basis changeover of out-of-date components lays, whose maintenance is already inexpedient.

This circumstance, by the way, is one of the reasons feeding enthusiasm of some users, engaged in dispersal (overclocking) the computers. These users, aspiring to saving of the financial assets, at the expense of speeding up of operation of the accessories making a basis of their systems, try similar way to solve a problem of their insufficient productivity without their changeover by more perfect models.

However similar questions fall outside the limits given article and can become a basis of the following publications devoted to implementation of some hidden possibilities of computer accessories without lowering of metrics of dependability and stability of operation.